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<p>Groovy enables one class to extend another, just as interfaces can, though classes extend at most one class. We can test for extended classes with the 'in' operator, just like with implemented interfaces:</p>
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class A{}
class B extends A{}
def b= new B()
assert b in B &amp;&amp; b in A

class A1{}
class A2{}
//class C extends A1, A2{}
    //compile error when uncommented: a class can extend at most one class
</pre></td></tr></table>

<p>Public instance fields, properties, and methods defined on an extended class are also available on the extending class:</p>
<table class="wysiwyg-macro" data-macro-name="code" style="background-image: url(/plugins/servlet/confluence/placeholder/macro-heading?definition=e2NvZGV9&amp;locale=en_GB&amp;version=2); background-repeat: no-repeat;" data-macro-body-type="PLAIN_TEXT"><tr><td class="wysiwyg-macro-body"><pre>
class A{
  public int prev //field
  int signature //property
  String sayPies(int n){ "There are ${prev= signature= n} pies!" } //method
}
class B extends A{
  String sayBirds(int n){ "There are $n birds!" }
}
def b= new B()
assert b.sayBirds(17) == 'There are 17 birds!'
assert b.sayPies(11) == 'There are 11 pies!'
    //method sayPies(int) from A acts as part of B
assert b.prev == 11 //field 'prev' from A acts as part of B
b.signature= 19
assert b.signature == 19 //property 'signature' from A acts as part of B
assert b.getSignature() == 19
</pre></td></tr></table>

<p>We can use the 'private' and 'protected' modifiers to restrict the visibility of instance methods, properties, and fields:</p>
<table class="wysiwyg-macro" data-macro-name="code" style="background-image: url(/plugins/servlet/confluence/placeholder/macro-heading?definition=e2NvZGV9&amp;locale=en_GB&amp;version=2); background-repeat: no-repeat;" data-macro-body-type="PLAIN_TEXT"><tr><td class="wysiwyg-macro-body"><pre>
class A{
  //private methods, properties, and fields are not visible outside the class,
  //even in inheriting classes...
  private int prevPies
  private String sayPies(int n){ "There are ${prevPies= n} pies!" }

//protected methods, properties, and fields are visible in inheriting
  //classes (and within the same package)...
  protected int prevBeans
  protected String sayBeans(int n){ "There are ${prevBeans= n} beans!" }
}
class B extends A{
  def testAccesses(){
    assert sayPies(23) == 'There are 23 pies!'
               //Groovy bug: this private method shouldn't be visible here
    try{ prevPies; assert 0 }catch(e){ assert e in MissingPropertyException }
               //A's private field 'prevPies' not visible here

assert sayBeans(29) == 'There are 29 beans!'
               //A's protected method visible here in an inheriting class
    assert prevBeans == 29
               //A's protected field visible here in an inheriting class
  }
}
def b= new B()
assert b.sayPies(11) == 'There are 11 pies!'
               //Groovy bug: this private method shouldn't be visible here
try{ b.prevPies; assert 0 }catch(e){ assert e in MissingPropertyException }
               //A's private field 'prevPies' not visible here

assert b.sayBeans(14) == 'There are 14 beans!'
    //this protected method is visible here in the same package it's defined in
assert b.prevBeans == 14
    //this protected field is visible here in the same package it's defined in

b.testAccesses()
</pre></td></tr></table>

<p>Public static fields, properties, and methods are inherited by extending classes:</p>
<table class="wysiwyg-macro" data-macro-name="code" style="background-image: url(/plugins/servlet/confluence/placeholder/macro-heading?definition=e2NvZGV9&amp;locale=en_GB&amp;version=2); background-repeat: no-repeat;" data-macro-body-type="PLAIN_TEXT"><tr><td class="wysiwyg-macro-body"><pre>
class A{
  static public int numBananas //field
  static signature //property
  static String sayBananas(int n){ //method
    "There are ${numBananas= signature= n} bananas!"
  }
}
class B extends A{}

assert A.sayBananas(23) == 'There are 23 bananas!' //method call
assert A.numBananas == 23 //field access
assert A.signature == 23 //property accesses
assert A.getSignature() == 23

assert B.sayBananas(23) == 'There are 23 bananas!' //method call

assert B.numBananas == 23 //field access
assert B.signature == 23 //property access
B.getSignature() == 23 //property access using method syntax
</pre></td></tr></table>

<p>We can make static methods, properties, and fields private or protected:</p>
<table class="wysiwyg-macro" data-macro-name="code" style="background-image: url(/plugins/servlet/confluence/placeholder/macro-heading?definition=e2NvZGV9&amp;locale=en_GB&amp;version=2); background-repeat: no-repeat;" data-macro-body-type="PLAIN_TEXT"><tr><td class="wysiwyg-macro-body"><pre>
class A{
  static private int numBananas= 0
  static private String sayBananas(int n){
    "There are ${numBananas= n} bananas!"
  }
  static protected int numApples= 0
  static protected String sayApples(int n){
    "There are ${numApples= n} apples!"
  }
}
class B extends A{
  static testAccesses(){
    assert sayBananas(37) == 'There are 37 bananas!'
    //numBananas //compile error when uncommented:
                 //A's private field not visible here

assert sayApples(29) == 'There are 29 apples!'
    numApples //A's protected field visible here in an inheriting class
  }
}
assert B.sayBananas(31) == 'There are 31 bananas!'
try{ B.numBananas; assert 0 }catch(e){ assert e in MissingPropertyException }
assert B.sayApples(23) == 'There are 23 apples!'
assert B.numApples == 23

B.testAccesses()
</pre></td></tr></table>

<p>We can define what's called an &quot;abstract class&quot;,  a class with only some methods defined, the others being only declarations just like in interfaces. An abstract class and each method declaration in it must be modified with the keyword 'abstract':</p>
<table class="wysiwyg-macro" data-macro-name="code" style="background-image: url(/plugins/servlet/confluence/placeholder/macro-heading?definition=e2NvZGV9&amp;locale=en_GB&amp;version=2); background-repeat: no-repeat;" data-macro-body-type="PLAIN_TEXT"><tr><td class="wysiwyg-macro-body"><pre>
interface X{
  def x()
}
interface Y{
  def y()
}
abstract class A{
  def a(){ println 1 } //method definition
  abstract b()         //declaration of method only
}
class B extends A implements X, Y{
  def x(){ println 2 }
  def y(){ println 3 }
  def b(){ println 4 } //declared method from abstract class A defined here
}
</pre></td></tr></table>

<p>Whether a method is static or not is part of its definition, not its declaration. So interface and abstract methods may not be declared static.</p>
<table class="wysiwyg-macro" data-macro-name="code" style="background-image: url(/plugins/servlet/confluence/placeholder/macro-heading?definition=e2NvZGV9&amp;locale=en_GB&amp;version=2); background-repeat: no-repeat;" data-macro-body-type="PLAIN_TEXT"><tr><td class="wysiwyg-macro-body"><pre>
interface X{
  def x()
  //static x1() //error when uncommented: interface methods can not be static
}
interface Y{
  def y()
}
abstract class A{
  static a(){ println 1 }
  abstract b()
  abstract c()
  //abstract static c1()
    //error when uncommented: abstract methods can not be static
}
class B extends A implements X, Y{
  static x(){ println 2 }
  def y(){ println 3 }
  static b(){ println 4 }
  def c(){ println 5 }
}
</pre></td></tr></table>

<p>At the other end from abstract classes and methods are &quot;final classes&quot; and &quot;final methods&quot;. A final class may not be extended; a final method may not be overriden:</p>
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class A{
  final a(){ 11 }
  def b(){ 12 }
}
final class B extends A{
  //def a(){ 15 } //compile error when uncommented: can not override final A.a()
  def b(){ 16 }
}
//class C extends B{} //compile error when uncommented: can not extend final C
</pre></td></tr></table>

<h3>Constructors</h3>

<p>Just as a class's constructor can call another constructor at the beginning of its code, so also it can call a constructor on the superclass at the beginning of its code:</p>
<table class="wysiwyg-macro" data-macro-name="code" style="background-image: url(/plugins/servlet/confluence/placeholder/macro-heading?definition=e2NvZGV9&amp;locale=en_GB&amp;version=2); background-repeat: no-repeat;" data-macro-body-type="PLAIN_TEXT"><tr><td class="wysiwyg-macro-body"><pre>
class A{
  def list= []
  A(){
    list&lt;&lt; "A constructed"
  }
  A(int i){
    this()
    list&lt;&lt; "A constructed with $i"
  }
}
class B extends A{
  B(){
    list&lt;&lt; "B constructed"
  }
  B(String s){
    super(5) //a constructor can call its superclass's constructor if it's
             //the first statement
    list&lt;&lt; "B constructed with '$s'"
  }
}

def b1= new B('kea')
assert b1.list.collect{it as String} == [
  "A constructed",
  "A constructed with 5",
  "B constructed with 'kea'",
]
def b2= new B()
assert b2.list == [
  "A constructed",
        //default parameterless constructor called if super() not called
  "B constructed",
]
</pre></td></tr></table>

<h3>Using Classes by Extending Them</h3>

<p>Some classes supplied with Groovy are intended to be extended to be used. For example, FilterInputStream, FilterOutputStream, FilterReader, and FilterWriter:</p>
<table class="wysiwyg-macro" data-macro-name="code" style="background-image: url(/plugins/servlet/confluence/placeholder/macro-heading?definition=e2NvZGV9&amp;locale=en_GB&amp;version=2); background-repeat: no-repeat;" data-macro-body-type="PLAIN_TEXT"><tr><td class="wysiwyg-macro-body"><pre>
//When not extended, FilterOutputStream simply passes its method calls to the
//wrapped stream...
try{
  def fos= new FilterOutputStream(new FileOutputStream('abc.txt'))
  fos.write(33i)
  fos.write([34,35,36] as byte[])
  fos.write([34,35,36,37,38,39,40] as byte[], 3, 2)
  fos.close()
  def fis= new FilterInputStream(new FileInputStream('abc.txt'))
  def ba= new byte[6]
  fis.read(ba)
  assert ba.toList() == [33,34,35,36,37,38]
}

//We can extend FilterOutputStream to provide the logic for the filter...
class EvenNumberOutputStream extends FilterOutputStream{
  EvenNumberOutputStream(OutputStream out){
    super(out)
  }
  def write(int i){
    if(i%2 == 0) super.write(i) //call method of same name in the super-class
  }
  def write(byte[] ba){
    super.write( ba.toList().findAll{ it%2 == 0 } as byte[] )
  }
  def write(byte[] ba, int start, int size){
    this.write( ba[start..&lt;(start+size)] as byte[] )
        //another way to call method of same name in same class definition
  }
}
try{ //...then call the methods...
  def fos= new EvenNumberOutputStream(new FileOutputStream('abc.txt'))
  fos.write(33i)
  fos.write([34,35,36] as byte[])
  fos.write([34,35,36,37,38,39,40] as byte[], 3, 2)
  fos.close()
  def fis= new FilterInputStream(new FileInputStream('abc.txt'))
  def ba= new byte[6]
  fis.read(ba)
  assert ba.toList() == [34,36,38,0,0,0]
}
</pre></td></tr></table>

<p>We can similarly extend FilterInputStream, FilterReader, and FilterWriter.</p>

<h3>The Object Hierarchy</h3>

<p>All classes are arranged in a hierarchy with java.lang.Object as the root. Here are those we've met so far; those labelled as such are abstract and final classes:</p>
<table class="wysiwyg-macro" data-macro-name="code" style="background-image: url(/plugins/servlet/confluence/placeholder/macro-heading?definition=e2NvZGV9&amp;locale=en_GB&amp;version=2); background-repeat: no-repeat;" data-macro-body-type="PLAIN_TEXT"><tr><td class="wysiwyg-macro-body"><pre>
java.lang.Object
    java.lang.Boolean (final)
    java.lang.Character (final)
    java.lang.Number (abstract)
        java.lang.Integer (final)
        java.lang.Long (final)
        java.math.BigInteger
        java.math.BigDecimal
        java.lang.Short (final)
        java.lang.Byte (final)
        java.lang.Float (final)
        java.lang.Double (final)
    java.math.MathContext (final)
    java.util.Random
    java.util.Date
    java.util.TimeZone (abstract)
        java.util.SimpleTimeZone
    java.util.Calendar (abstract)
        java.util.GregorianCalendar
    groovy.time.BaseDuration (abstract)
        groovy.time.Duration
        groovy.time.TimeDuration
        groovy.time.DatumDependentDuration
            groovy.time.TimeDatumDependentDuration
    java.util.AbstractCollection (abstract)
        java.util.AbstractList (abstract)
            java.util.ArrayList
                groovy.lang.Sequence
            groovy.lang.IntRange
            groovy.lang.ObjectRange
        java.util.AbstractSet (abstract)
            java.util.HashSet
            java.util.TreeSet
    java.util.AbstractMap (abstract)
        java.HashMap
            java.util.LinkedHashMap
            groovy.lang.SpreadMap
        java.TreeMap
    java.util.Collections
    java.lang.String (final)
    java.lang.StringBuffer (final)
    java.util.regex.Pattern (final)
    java.util.regex.Matcher (final)
    groovy.lang.GroovyObjectSupport (abstract)
        groovy.lang.Binding
        groovy.lang.Closure (abstract)
        groovy.lang.GString (abstract)
        groovy.util.Expando
    java.text.Format (abstract)
        java.text.NumberFormat (abstract)
            java.text.DecimalFormat
        java.text.DateFormat (abstract)
            java.text.SimpleDateFormat
    java.text.DecimalFormatSymbols
    java.text.DateFormatSymbols
    java.io.File
    java.io.InputStream (abstract)
        java.io.ByteArrayInputStream
        java.io.FileInputStream
        java.io.FilterInputStream
            java.io.BufferedInputStream
            java.io.DataInputStream
            java.io.LineNumberInputStream
            java.io.PushbackInputStream
        java.io.SequenceInputStream
        java.io.StringBufferInputStream
    java.io.OutputStream (abstract)
        java.io.ByteArrayOutputStream
        java.io.FileOutputStream
        java.io.FilterOutputStream
            java.io.BufferedOutputStream
            java.io.DataOutputStream
            java.io.PrintStream
    java.io.Reader (abstract)
        java.io.BufferedReader
            java.io.LineNumberReader
        java.io.CharArrayReader
        java.io.FilterReader (abstract)
            java.io.PushbackReader
        java.io.InputStreamReader
            java.io.FileReader
        java.io.StringReader
    java.io.Writer (abstract)
        java.io.BufferedWriter
        java.io.CharArrayWriter
        java.io.FilterWriter (abstract)
        java.io.OutputStreamWriter
            java.io.FileWriter
        java.io.PrintWriter
        java.io.StringWriter
</pre></td></tr></table>